The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. CONSTANTINOPLE to CHICAGO See original listing. He took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Mar 8, 1910. The reformed army and administration became the agents by which the sultan extended his authority over the semi-independent governors, local notables, valley lords, and other groups that had wielded political power in various parts of the empire. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. A Church in Florina, Greece in 1910.jpg 1,410 × 988; 164 KB [48] This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the First Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan[35] at the Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. [36] For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrendered control of significant European territories (many permanently), including Ottoman Hungary. One of the beyliks was led by Osman I (d. 1323/4), from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of Ertuğrul, around Eskişehir in western Anatolia. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. Beginning in the early 19th century, numerous administrative reforms were carried out in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. Stubborn resistance by the Maltese led to the lifting of the siege in September. check availability of print version v. 1. As a tactician, Mahmud proved to be superior to Selim. The beginning of the end was marked by the. Includes inset map, scale 1:18,000,000 showing existing and proposed network of railways (Ottoman Empire railways) connecting Anatolia with several Middle East countries (Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Hijaz Railways). By ImRelatedToYou At infographic.tv we provide handpicked collection of the best infographics and data charts from around the world. [40] The subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society. [5][6] Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448. [85] The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The Turks stayed in Otranto and its surrounding areas for nearly a year, but after Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481, plans for penetrating deeper into the Italian peninsula with fresh new reinforcements were given up on and cancelled and the remaining Ottoman troops sailed back to the east of the Adriatic Sea. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great. "The Armenian Question", p. 217. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. [13], In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns, 97 kilometres (60 mi) south of the city at the fortress of Güns. These reforms included[53] guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganisation of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganisation of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye (1841) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the Mecidiye identity papers, or informally kafa kağıdı (head paper) documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti, 1847, which later became the Maarif Nezareti, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (darülfünun, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (darülmuallimin, 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (Tıbbiye Nezareti, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Daniş, 1851); establishment of the Şirket-i Hayriye which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti, 1854) and the City Planning Council (İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu, 1855); the abolition of the capitation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and railways (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganised as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)[54] and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası, established in 1866);[55] the Land Code (Arazi Kanunnamesi, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (Mekteb-i Mülkiye, 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (Matbuat Nizamnamesi, 1864); among others. The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. In Arabia the Wahhābīs mocked Ottoman pretensions. Although granted their own constitution and national assembly with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. France, on its part, occupied Tunisia in 1881. [80] Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia). The Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Timur invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. [76], In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. [9] Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. During the Tanzimat period (from Arabic: تنظيم tanẓīm, meaning "organisation") (1839–76), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law[52] and guilds with modern factories. The famous Flemish-French painter Jean-Baptiste van Mour visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court. By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The triumph of the anti-reform coalition that had overthrown Selim III was interrupted in 1808 when the surviving reformers within the higher bureaucracy found support among the ayans of Rumelia (Ottoman possessions in the Balkans), who were worried by possible threats to their own position.The ayans were led by Bayrakdar (“Standard Bearer”) Mustafa Paşa. [30], However, the 17th century was not an era of stagnation and decline, but a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire. The remaining CUP members, who now took a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the Balkan Wars, dueled Freedom and Accord in a series of power reversals, which ultimately led to the CUP (specifically its leadership, the "Three Pashas") seizing power from the Freedom and Accord in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until the end of World War I. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. Together with Austria, Russia, under Empress Anne, Catherine I's niece, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. Mahmud began by curbing the power of rival claimants. Meanwhile, Napoleon I, through the agreements of Tilsit (July 7 and 9, 1807) and Erfurt (October 12, 1808), abandoned active opposition to Russia and accepted its occupation of the principalities. [81] These were formed mostly of irregular cavalry units of recruited Kurds. This Divan-approved form of the Code of Regulations consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. [56], Samuel Morse received his first ever patent for the telegraph in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present Beylerbeyi Palace was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention. However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat. This article about the Ottoman Armenian population presents some statistics of the Armenian population within the Ottoman Empire.Population size within the empire between 1914 and 1915 is a controversial topic. [56][57][59] In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph. The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. Picture Information. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.[18]. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the Baroque and Rococo movements in Europe. [citation needed] Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. Ottoman Empire, empire created by Turkish tribes that grew to be one of the most powerful states in the world in the 15th and 16th centuries. Ypsilantis was defeated, but an uprising began in the Peloponnese. His heir-apparent, Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. [45] Earlier, the guilds of writers had denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Istanbul that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492.) During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. The treaty, signed by the Russian commander Mikhail Kutuzov, was ratified by Alexander I of Russiajus… [42], Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. This ended the effectiveness of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî. The Greek revolt was the product of the economic prosperity of the Napoleonic Wars and exposure to western European ideas and was a reaction against Ottoman centralization. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Reform, revolution, and republic: the rise of modern Turkey, 1808-1975 The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire. New councils were established to assist in long-term planning; one, the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances (1838), subsequently became the principal legislative body. Mahmud II was then able to concentrate on internal reform. This list may not reflect recent changes ( learn more ). The Ottoman situation at the end of 1808 appeared desperate. (Shaw, 287). For example, the modernization of higher education began with the need to train officers, army doctors, and veterinary surgeons; that of the taxation system began with the need to pay the army; and that of the administration, with the need to collect the taxes. Mehmed Orhan, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II, Ertuğrul Osman, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. The Sultan and his family were declared personae non gratae of Turkey and exiled. The revolt was the result of the opposition of peasants and bandits to Ottoman authority and was instigated by plots of certain intellectuals organized through the political society Philikí Etaireía and led by Alexander Ypsilantis, who invaded Moldavia in March 1821. The introduction of increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. [62] Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Turkish education.[62]. A classic example is the Fountain of Ahmed III in front of the Topkapı Palace. [62] In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. [33] The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.[34]. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North Africa. The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and Montenegro, and the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in the Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia. [56] In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established. The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves, "History of the Istanbul Technical University", http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf, "Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank", "Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange", "Treaty of San Stefano | Russia-Turkey [1878]", "Map of Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the year 1900", A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility, "Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924", A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire&oldid=994448524, Articles lacking reliable references from October 2016, Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2011, Articles needing additional references from September 2016, All articles needing additional references, Articles lacking reliable references from September 2016, Articles with multiple maintenance issues, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2011, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Neoclassical thesis — to some extent it unites the previous ones about the beginning of the Ottoman decline, which are divided even nearly two centuries in time. The Ottomans were one of the principalities that emerged after the collapse of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Some times […] [77][78] Muslims had been the majority in some parts of the Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Serbia, under the leadership of George Petrović (Karageorge), had been in revolt since 1804; at first the Serbs had risen in desperation against the terrorist policies of the Janissaries—who had usurped the power of the local governor—but they subsequently had demanded autonomy and in 1807 allied themselves with Russia. Mahmud had established the respectability of change, and its symbol was the replacement of the turban with the fez (1828). To make his power more effective, he built new roads and in 1834 inaugurated a postal service. Details about 1037 - OTTOMAN EMPIRE TURKEY 1910 ? [16][17], After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. [39] Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912). Ottoman Empire - Ottoman Empire - Dissolution of the empire: Abdülhamid was deposed and replaced by Sultan Mehmed V (ruled 1909–18), son of Abdülmecid. At the same time, the numerous small Turkic states in Asia Minor were assimilated into the budding Ottoman sultanate through conquest or declarations of allegiance. Under Selim and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph. Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim. Another institution was the newly formed Armenian National Assembly. As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). O52 Turkey / Ottoman Empire AH-1223//23 (1910) 5 Piastres: Condition:--not specified. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The empire's First Constitutional era, was short-lived. [4] During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire. The preoccupation of the European powers with other interests helped the Ottomans ameliorate their international problems. The Crimean Khanate continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids,[23] and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century. On November 14, 1914, in Constantinople, capital of the Ottoman Empire, the religious leader Sheikh-ul-Islam declares an Islamic holy war on behalf of the [41], During the Tulip Era (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. Ottoman Empire - Ottoman Empire - The 1875–78 crisis: The success of the Tanzimat reformers, ironically, created a systemic weakness as centralization removed the checks on the power of the sultan. You can find the facts about the history of the Ottoman Empire, which turned into an empire over time, in this article.I tried to describe the rise and fall of the Ottoman Empire on maps and various images as much as possible. After the death of Ali Paşa, Abdülaziz so abused his unrestrained authority that he contributed to a major crisis in 1875–78. Ended: Aug 09, 2020 ... Ottoman Empire 5 Para AH 1327 1913 Sultan Muhammad V Turkey Silver NICE COIN . )[46] Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)[46][47]. Britain made peace on January 5, 1809, in the Treaty of Çanak. Details about OTTOMAN EMPIRE SOLDIER REAL PHOTO POSTCARD - circa 1910. [53], The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840. ), The criminal law of genocide: international, comparative and contextual aspects, by Ralph J. Henham, Paul Behrens, 2007, p. 17. editors: Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen, Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, Vol. Bayezid Osman, the second son of Sultan Abdülmecid I's younger grandson, Yavuz Selim Özgür, is now the current eldest surviving member of the former ruling dynasty, living in Melbourne, Australia. The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat by the Allies in World War I. In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. A further Janissary uprising in November 1808 led to the death of the Bayrakdar and to the reestablishment of conservative rule. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. H17 Turkey / Ottoman Empire AH-1327//2 (1910) 2 Piastres: Condition: --not specified. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s. The first item on the agenda of the Tehran conference is the issue of Turkey's participation in World War II by the end of 1943. The destruction of the combined Ottoman and Egyptian fleets by Russian, French, and British naval forces at Navarino in the southwestern Peloponnese (October 20, 1827) prevented the Muslims from supplying their armies and made Greek independence inevitable. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. Their victory, however, was short-lived. [43], This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. Firm Ottoman governmental control was established over Anatolia, Iraq, and much of Rumelia. On October 17, 1912, following the example of Montenegro, their smaller ally in the tumultuous Balkan region of Europe, Serbia and Greece declare war on the Ottoman Empire… The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. …with the end of the Ottoman Empire, therefore, was not a matter of concern.Henceforward, each predominantly Muslim country would be free to determine its own political system. The empire disintegrated after World War I. Bulgaria also achieved independence[73] (as the Principality of Bulgaria); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations. Attempts to extend Ottoman control in the European provinces, notably in Greece, Serbia, and the principalities, were frustrated. [70] By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826. By the Treaty of Edirne, on September 14, 1829, the Ottomans ceded to Russia the mouth of the Danube and important territories in eastern Asia Minor and conceded new privileges to the principalities and Serbia. Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (11 September 1697).[38]. Cambridge University Pres, 2006. With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum during 12th to 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Anatolian Beyliks. Map of the Ottoman Empire 1910, by Me. On 15 September 1656 the octogenarian Köprülü Mehmed Pasha accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide Turhan Hatice of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences[28] and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. The number of revolutionary political parties rose dramatically. Origins and expansion of the Ottoman state, Restoration of the Ottoman Empire, 1402–81, Ottoman institutions in the 14th and 15th centuries, Domination of southeastern Europe and the Middle East, Classical Ottoman society and administration, The decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1566–1807, Military defeats and the emergence of the Eastern Question, 1683–1792, Imperial decline in the 18th and early 19th centuries, Allied war aims and the proposed peace settlement. Battle of Vienna. [60] In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. The Ottoman Empire was founded circa 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople.